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Wenyue Hsiung
Wenyue Hsiung is Professor at Nanjing forestry University, Nanjing, China.
For centuries, bamboo has been put to a bewildering variety of uses by the people of China. But even more is expected from bamboo in the future as China's forest managers and researchers work with growers and users to improve yields and develop new processing technologies.
· In Chinese culture bamboos symbolize gentleness, modesty and serenity. Indeed, bamboos have played a vital role in the development of Chinese culture and civilization and are still important today in Chinese rural economics and for industrial uses.
In fact, although the use of bamboo in China goes back almost 5 000 years, an increase in presentday demand and improved processing techniques point toward potentially rapid growth of the bamboo-based industry in China. Research will greatly contribute to the success of the venture.
China is rich in bamboo re sources. Of the more than bamboo species and varieties within about 70 genera in the world, China has more than 400 species and varieties belonging to 34 genera. The total area of China's bamboo resources, exclusive of small undergrowth or alpine thickets, is about 3.4 million ha, nearly 3 percent of the country's total forest area and one-quarter of the world bamboo area.
Bamboos are closely associated with Chinese civilization. Their use can be traced back as far as the New Stone Age, as is indicated by the bamboo mats and baskets unearthed from the ruins of Hemodu and Shishan in Zhejiang Province, which were estimated to be some 4 800-5 300 years old. Bamboo articles were recorded in the oldest Chinese characters inscribed on bone and tortoiseshell unearthed from the ruins of the Yin Dynasty (- BC) in Anyang, Henan. During the Zhou Dynasty (-300 BC) small culms were used as fishing-rods, larger culms were split into slips on which historical events were recorded, musical instruments were made of bamboo and bamboo shoots were cooked and eaten with fish and meat. In the Jin Dynasty (313-420), more than 200 agricultural implements and everyday items were made from bamboo. About years ago young culms were used for pulping and papermaking. Improved bamboo paper has been graded as the best for Chinese painting and handwriting. In ancient wars bamboo bows and arrows were effective weapons, and the first firearms and missiles were made from culms after the invention of gunpowder in China.
TRADITIONAL BAMBOO PRODUCTS (left) bamboo mats and baskets been used for centuries / FAO
BAMBOO FOR CONSTRUCTION IN BANGLADESH (above) a valuable resource in many countries / DE SABATINO
Distribution
Geographically, bamboos occur throughout China, from the southern tip of Hainan Island to Beijing and from Langxiaan in Tibet to east Taiwan, covering the tropical, subtropical and part of the temperate regions. They are distributed from sea-level up to 3 800 m high in the mountains of Tibet and Sichuan. However, most bamboos are thermophilous and are mainly confined to river basins and hilly land with fertile soil and a humid climate in the tropical and subtropical regions. Ecologically, bamboos with leptomorph rhizomes occur mostly in the Huang He (Yellow River) and Chang Jiang (Yangtze River) valleys and those with pachymorph rhizomes in south China. Between them lies a transitional zone of both rhizomal types.
Since China's bamboo area has increased rapidly (see Table). In particular, the area of Phyllostachys pubescens, the most important commercial species, has been enlarged by about 82 percent and now covers 2.42 million ha: 71.2 percent of China's total bamboo area.
Scientists and foresters are being encouraged to work on bamboo problems with financial support from the Government.
In Chinese culture bamboos symbolize gentleness, modesty and serenity.
Production and management
The total standing stock of bamboo in China is about 71.22 million tonnes and the annual yield about 7 million tonnes, approximately 2 tonnes per hectare, to which Phyllostachys pubescens contributes 56.5 and 5 million tonnes respectively. Other important bamboo species are P. bambusoides, P. glauca, P. nidularia, P. viridis, P. propinqua, P. aurea, P. makinoi, P. nude, P. aureosulcata, P. nigra var. henonis, P. flexuosa, P. congesta, P. praecox, P. vivax, Arundinaria amabilis, Pleioblastus amarus, Bambusa textilis, B. perveriabilis, B. rigida, B. oldhami, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Sinocalamus affinis, and Lingnania chungii. These either occur naturally or are planted on a lesser scale in their appropriate regions and managed either for culm yield, for shoot production or for dual purposes.
Many bamboos are cultivated in villages for rural consumption. Such bamboo groves vary from a few clumps of bamboo to plantations of a hectare or more. The management of bamboo stands has long been practiced in China and bamboo farmers have accumulated a wealth of silvicultural experience. It is estimated that an additional 2 million tonnes of culms are produced annually from village bamboo groves.
In recent decades the government has encouraged farmers to exercise intensive management of bamboo stands, including the control of felling, weeding, soil conditioning, fertilization and the elimination of pests. Annual yields of culms as high as 10-15 tonnes per hectare have been recorded in Shimen, Shuangyi and Moganshan (Zhejiang), Taoyuan (Hunan), Chishui (Guizhou) and Changning (Sichuan) for Phyllostachys pubescens, in Loning (Henan) for P. glauca, in Bo'ai (Henan) for P. bambusoides, in Huaiji (Guangdong) for Arundinaria amabilis and in Guangning (Guangdong) for Bambusa textilis and Lingnania chungii. Similarly, shoot production of P. pubescens, P. praecox, P. vivax, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and Bambusa beecheyana has reached 20-30 tonnes annually per hectare in Zhejiang, Fujian and Guangdong. About 10 percent of bamboo stands are now under intensive management.
Utilization
The Chinese people have used bamboos widely because of their easy propagation, vigorous regeneration, fast growth, high production, quick maturity, short rotation and graceful form. The particular qualities of bamboo culms - straightness, lightness, strength, hardness, high fibre content and easy workability - are ideal for different technological purposes.
For example, bamboo has traditionally been used in all parts of house construction, except for chimneys and fireplaces. Bamboo houses and constructions are still commonly seen in rural areas, particularly in the southern provinces. Beams, frames, floors, walls, partitions, ceilings, doors and windows can be made from culms in round or in split form. Long culms are laced together for scaffolding for high buildings and bamboo mats serve as protection during construction.
Bamboo is also commonly used for a great number of general construction purposes. Bamboo bridges can be built either by tying together large culms for small streams or by suspending bamboo cables twisted from culm splits. Bamboo rafts are still an important means of transportation in areas with shallow rivers. Ladders, furniture, musical instruments, sports equipment, spears, bows, arrows, fishing-rods, tool-handles, fishing-net frames, boating poles, etc. can also be made of round culms according to their particular size and quality.
Figura / N.LUGINBÜHL
Development of China's bamboo resources
Year
Total
Phyllostachys pubescens
Area
Standing stock
Area
Standing stock
( ha)
( tonnes)
( ha)
( tonnes)
200.00
n.a.
133.33
n.a.
216.00
4 563.30
149.44
3 563.30
230.55
5 501.12
161.29
4 382.22
270.47
.31
199.62
5 314.11
338.82
.34
242.25
5 655.10
Many agricultural implements are made of bamboo, including irrigation wheels, water-pipes, hoe-handles, hand-rakes, aeration mats, sieves, screens, windows, fans, thrashing sticks, carrying rods, grain containers, granaries and supports for vines, beans, gourds, bananas and aquatic crops.
Many works of art and various everyday commodities are made from bamboo culms, splits and strips. They include flowerpots, furniture, lamp-stands, lampshades, sun blinds, painted curtains, fans, brooms, chopsticks, fruit containers, sleeping and cushion mats, bookshelves, umbrella handles, laundry poles, baskets, ladies' bags, etc. In southern Yunan, villagers use the larger culms of Dendrocalamus sinicus to make buckets for water.
Apart from traditional uses, however, bamboo is also an important material in modern industry. Culm splits are used to reinforce concrete as a substitute for steel in some constructions. Bamboo pulping and papermaking have long been practiced and are still common in the Chinese countryside. Four tonnes of fresh culms are generally needed to produce one tonne of unbleached pulp. Modern paper mills do not use bamboo much as a raw material because of its impurity and cooking costs. However, because of the increasing demand for paper, several modern bamboo paper mills will need to be established within a few years.
During the Second World War, "plybamboo" was produced in China for aeroplane material. As a result of technological improvements various types of bamboo boards are now being manufactured. Bamboo mats are prepared by weaving culm strips. Bamboo veneers are peeled by machine from large culms about 3-4 m long that have been pretreated in boiling water. Bamboo sheets are also produced by breaking and widening the large culms after hot-water treatment. They are easily conditioned and are glued together into boards of determined size, number of layers and thickness in the same way as plywood. Plybamboo boards can be used for furniture, floors, walls, doors, ceilings, boxes, cement frames, windmill-blades and ornamental purposes. In addition, particle boards can be manufactured from bamboo chips. Trays, pans, containers and spindles can be moulded by gluing fine culm strips with sawdust. Processed bamboo products and ornamental items are increasingly in demand for export and for domestic consumption.
Multiple uses of bamboo
Bamboo shoots are considered a nutritional vegetable. They come either from intensive plantations or from natural stands and are sold fresh, dry, pickled or canned mostly for domestic consumption.
The rhizomes of monopodial bamboos are used to make walking-sticks, pipes, whips and hand-crafts. Long rhizome necks of Pseudostachyam polymorphum are characteristic for their high elasticity and durability in water and are traditionally used to make fishing-net frames. Culm stumps make good material for carving and can also be used to produce active charcoal. Bamboo roots are used for making cords and brushes once their hard cortex has been removed.
Bamboo farmers have accumulated a wealth of silvicultural experience.
TENDING A BAMBOO PLANTATION IN HUBEI PROVINCE China's bamboo has rapidly increased / F. BOTTS
Long bamboo branches of Phyllostachys pubescens and small bamboos are commonly used for binding brooms and whips and for hedges. Bamboo leaves make good forage for cattle. The larger ones can be used to thatch tent roofs, for hat-making and wrapping food. Young culms and leaves of Sinarundinaria bamboos serve as the main food source for the giant panda in the mountains of west China where pandas live in the wild. Culm sheaths of large bamboos of a considerable size, toughness and flexibility are used for wrapping goods, making hats, coarse sandal weaving, cord twisting, filling and pulping. The juice of Phyllostachys bamboos obtained from one end of a culm section by heating the other is an effective cure for fever. Tabasheer is a siliceous material secreted from the culm of some species and is commonly used as a cooling tonic, an aphrodisiac and for other healing purposes.
Together with plums, orchids and chrysanthemums bamboos are common in many gardens. Their colourful culms with their peculiar nodes and graceful foliage are always a beautiful feature of parks, scenic spots, historical sites and villages in south China. Species commonly used for ornamental purposes are tortoise-shell bamboo (P. pubescens var. heterocycla); manlace bamboo (P. aurea); golden bamboo (P. viridis f. youngii); goldjade bamboo (P. aureosulcata f. spectabilis); purple bamboo (P. nigra); tear bamboo (P. bambusoides f. tanakee); Buddha's-belly bamboo (Bambusa ventricosa); abacus-bead bamboo (Qiongzhuea tumidinoda); square bamboo (Chimonobambusa quadrangularis), etc. Small bamboos such as Bambusa multiplex var. nana can be used for living hedge.
Bamboos are valuable plants for wind-breaks and soil conservation because of their heavy evergreen foliage and extensive root system. They are often planted along river banks, lake shores and hilly slopes to prevent soil erosion. In rural areas farmers always plant small bamboo groves around their homesteads.
Research
In the past bamboos were considered a perpetual resource because of their vigorous vegetative propagation and regeneration. However, uncontrolled exploitation results in a reduced yield and a deterioration in quality. Since it has been forecast that bamboo will become increasingly important for rural economic and industrial development attention has been paid in recent decades to bamboo production and utilization. Scientists and foresters are being encouraged to work on bamboo problems with financial support from the government.
Biology
Much confusion exists about the taxonomy of bamboo plants in China and the rest of the world Chinese botanists and foresters have made a great effort to investigate, collect, identify and classify bamboo plants in China and have clarified some of the taxonomic confusion Many new bamboos have been discovered and described and several new genera established A volume on bamboos in China is in preparation. Meanwhile, a number of bamboo gardens have been established in Hangzhou, Nanjing, Guangzhou, Nanning, Chengdu and Anji to serve as gene pools for further studies on genetics, breeding and taxonomy
Investigations, observations and experiments have been carried out dealing with growth patterns, morphological characteristics, physiological mechanisms, anatomical features, ecological habits and the genetic make-up of important bamboos such as Phyllostachys pubescens, P. glauca, P. vivax, Arundinaria amabilis, Sinocalamus affinis, etc. Since the s Nanjing Forestry University and other institutions have conducted research on nutrient content, anatomical characteristics, intercalary meristem, culm structure and the combustion value of major bamboos. A number of permanent plots have been established over bamboo areas for phonological observation and experiments of material-energy flow in bamboo ecosystems in relation to their ecological structure and silvicultural management.
Apart traditional uses, bamboo is also an important material in modern industry.
Processing techniques and machines have been studied and designed to meet the increasing demand for bamboo products.
The flowering behaviour of Phyllostachys pubescens, Bambusa textilis, B. pervariabilis, P. sinospinosa, Dendrocalamus latiflorus and D. minor has been systematically observed and recorded to facilitate breeding bamboos in Guangdong Institute of Forestry. Several desirable hybrids have been created: Bambusa pervariabilis X Dendrocalamus latiflorus (B. textilis) 1; B. textilis X D. latiflorus 4; B. pervariabilis X D. latiflorus 25; and D. minor X D. latiflorus 5, all of which have better properties than their parents regarding culm straightness, growth vigour, culm strength and shoot taste. The chromosome number of their vegetative cells has also been observed and checked. In addition to 72 and 48 chromosomes commonly seen in many bamboo species, 64 also exist in Bambusa textilis and B. pervariabilis.
Sliviculture
In the early s Guangdong and Guangxi Institutes of Forestry conducted systematic research on the vegetative propagation of Bambusa textitis, B. pervariabilis and Lignania chungii, important commercial bamboos in southern China. Culm nodes and large branches with dormant buds were selected for cuttings that produced a large number of young propagules for planting. Such work contributed greatly to the development of bamboo production in Guangdong and Guangxi.
Most research has been done on the culm yield of Phyllostachys pubescens by Nanjing Forestry University, the Chinese Academy of Forestry and other institutions. Stand density, protection, weeding, soil conditioning, fertilization and pest control are the major subjects of such programmes. The results obtained, together with traditional experiences, constitute an integrated system of silvicultural techniques in bamboo management. Accordingly, bamboo stands are classified into high-, medium- and low-yield groups on the basis of their productivity and site conditions. For different classes the appropriate silvicultural techniques are designated.
Traditionally, plantations of Phyllostachys pubescens are managed under an alternate on-and-off year system. This however has its weaknesses as far as annual production is concerned. Consequently, physiological and silvicultural approaches have been conducted to convert on-and-off year stands into even ones.
Since the s some successful research has been done on the introduction of bamboos to areas outside their natural ranges. As a result, some southern bamboos have been well acclimatized in the north. Phyllostachys pubescens grows safely in Wendeng and Laoshan, Shandong. Arundinaria amabilis, a native bamboo of Guangdong and Guangxi, becomes hardened in the Yangtze valley. P. glauca, P. vivax and P. nigra grow healthily outside their northern range. Bambusa textilis, B. pervariabilis, B. multiplex and Sinocalamus affinis have also artificially extended their northern distribution limit.
Insect and disease control
Many insects, such as Ceracris kiangsu, Otidognathus davidis, A trachea vulgaris, Pegomyia kiangsuensis, Pantana sinica, Chionaspis bambusae, Arcona funeralis, Algedonia coclasalis, caused serious damage to living bamboos in the s. However, after a series of studies on their life history, occurrence and development, effective measures have succeeded in bringing the problem under control.
Diseases such as Stereostratum corticioides, Balansia take, Shirarua bambusicala and Ustilago shiraiana often occur in bamboo stands, but seldom cause any serious damage. The most destructive is Ceraptosphaeria phyllostachydis or culm dieback disease, first discovered in stands of P. pubescens along the coast area of Zhejiang in the early s. This disease was widespread in northwest Zhejiang and along its borders and caused serious disaster in Chinese bamboo production. Studies by the Subtropical Forestry Institute on the disease's pathogenic origin, development and prevention eventually brought it under control.
Studies on the treatment of bamboo products against mould and borers are under way in some institutes. Nanjing Forestry University has achieved remarkable results in preserving P. pubescens products with liquefied acetyl under atmospheric pressure.
Utilization
Since the s studies on the physical, mechanical and chemical properties of more than 70 bamboo species have been conducted. The results obtained show that bamboo moisture content in dry air is 15-18 percent; fibre saturation point 30-35 percent; volume-weight 0.60: 0.77; radial shrinkage 4-5 percent; tangential shrinkage 3-4 percent; longitudinal shrinkage 0.3 0.5 percent; and combustion value 4 680 cal/g. Their tensile strength is twice that of timber wood and their compression is about 10 percent higher. Their fibre content ranges from 40 to 60 percent with 2 000 microns in length and 12-17 microns in width. Accordingly, bamboos can be classified for appropriate uses in various categories, such as mechanical, layer splitting, pulping and paper-making and shoot producing.
Processing techniques and machines have been studied and designed to meet the increasing demand for bamboo products, particularly bamboo plywood, particle boards and hardboards. Improvement is still being made. Secondary processing techniques such as bending, moulding, costing, polishing and dyeing, which are important for furniture, artistic articles and other fine products, are also included in research programmes.
Increasing pulp yield and reducing treatment costs are key problems that need to be solved in making paper from bamboo. A sustained supply of culms as raw material presents another problem for modern paper mills. Current research programmes are studying these factors.
A number of universities, institutes and business units have undertaken important research projects related to bamboo production and Utilization. The Bamboo Research Institute, the first of its kind in China, was established in conjunction with the Bamboo Laboratory of Nanjing Forestry University. A national organization of bamboo workers known as the Chinese Bamboo Association (CBA) was established in . Its aim is to promote scientific activities and the cooperation of bamboo workers both in China and abroad. In addition, three scientific periodicals are published. Bamboo Research and Bamboo Information are edited by the Chinese Bamboo Association and the Bamboo Research Institute, and the Journal of Bamboo Research by Zhejiang Institute of Forestry.
China is a country with great potential for bamboo production and utilization. Although some achievements have been made and traditional products have won a good reputation, greater efforts are still needed to increase bamboo plantations, promote the unit yield of bamboo stands and fully utilize bamboo resources. Research on different aspects of the bamboo industry is still in the initial stages. Further studies are urgently needed on bamboo taxonomy, genetics, ecology, silvicultural management, protection against pests, processing techniques and multi-use. More research work and international scientific cooperation should be encouraged for the development of bamboo production and utilization both in China and the rest of the world.
HSIUNG, W.Y. & ZHOU F.C. Silviculture of bamboos. Beijing, Chinese Forestry Press.
HSIUNG, W.Y. The distribution, production and research of bamboos in the world. Bamboo Res., 2 (1): 6-16.
How to Choose Lithium Battery Cells NCM18650?For more information, please visit China bamboo treatment machine.
Featured content:How to Select Lithium Battery Cells NCM26700?HSIUNG, W.Y. & REN, Y.Y. Bamboos in development of Chinese civilization. Bamboo Res., 2 (1): 88-100.
ZHOU, F.C. The history present situation and prospect of bamboo production and research in China. Bamboo Res., 2 (1): 18-22.
FAO FORESTRY PAPERS
47 () Tecnical forestry education: design and implementation - A guide to forestry trainning at the tecnical level, by H.A. Hilmi and D. Sim. (available in English only)
65 () Forest legislation in selected African countries - A comprensive analysis and review of selected forestry laws and regulations, by F. Schmithüsen. (available in English and French)
66 () Forestry extension organization - A guide to organizing a forestry extension programme (available in English only)
71 () World compendium of forestry and forest products research institutions - A catalogue of worldwide research resources, by H.A. Hilmi. (available in English, French and Spanish)
Bamboo as a valuable resource and its utilization in historical and modern-day China," BioResources 17(1), -.
Abstract
Dlamini, L. C., Fakudze, S., Makombe, G. G., Muse, S., and Zhu, J. (). "," BioResources 17(1), -.
Due to some challenges related to the utilization of wood, such as long growth cycles and severe deforestation, the utilization of bamboo resources has attracted wide attention globally. Bamboo is characterized by remarkable strength and elasticity properties, minimal maintenance requirements, and a fast growth cycle, as it can reach maturity within three to five years. Moreover, bamboo is attractive as a sustainable resource owing to its excellent regeneration ability and high crop yield. A single cultivation of bamboo can remain existent for several years, and the plants can regenerate new shoots shortly after harvesting. Hence, the cultivation, management, trade, and utilization of eco-friendly bamboo resources have become of great importance. Currently, a larger proportion of the world&#;s bamboo forests and approximately 80% of the world&#;s bamboo species are found in east Asia, south Asia, and southeast Asia. China has the richest bamboo resources, with a total of 861 species from 43 genera. Specifically, bamboo forests in China cover a total area of approximately 6.73 million ha (approximately one-third of the world&#;s bamboo forests) scattered across different provinces, including Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, and Zhejiang, among others. Herein, this work reviewed the cultivation and utilization of bamboo resources in historical and modern China.
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Bamboo as a Valuable Resource and its Utilization in Historical and Modern-day China
Lindeka C. Dlamini,a Sandile Fakudze,b Gerly G. Makombe,c Saad Muse,b and Jiangang Zhu d,*
Due to some challenges related to the utilization of wood, such as long growth cycles and severe deforestation, the utilization of bamboo resources has attracted wide attention globally. Bamboo is characterized by remarkable strength and elasticity properties, minimal maintenance requirements, and a fast growth cycle, as it can reach maturity within three to five years. Moreover, bamboo is attractive as a sustainable resource owing to its excellent regeneration ability and high crop yield. A single cultivation of bamboo can remain existent for several years, and the plants can regenerate new shoots shortly after harvesting. Hence, the cultivation, management, trade, and utilization of eco-friendly bamboo resources have become of great importance. Currently, a larger proportion of the world&#;s bamboo forests and approximately 80% of the world&#;s bamboo species are found in east Asia, south Asia, and southeast Asia. China has the richest bamboo resources, with a total of 861 species from 43 genera. Specifically, bamboo forests in China cover a total area of approximately 6.73 million ha (approximately one-third of the world&#;s bamboo forests) scattered across different provinces, including Fujian, Jiangxi, Hunan, and Zhejiang, among others. Herein, this work reviewed the cultivation and utilization of bamboo resources in historical and modern China.
DOI: 10./biores.17.1.Dlamini
Keywords: Bamboo resources; China; Asia; Cultivation; Utilization
Contact information: a: College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing , P.R. China; b: College of Biology and the Environment, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing , P.R. China; c: College of Civil Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing , P.R. China; d: College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing , P.R. China; *Corresponding author:
GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
The excessive utilization of wood has been strongly criticized due to the serious environmental challenges caused by the continuous depletion of forest resources around the world. The cultivation of wood is also heavily disadvantaged by the long growth cycles (35 to 45 years) (Ramage et al. ). Bamboo remains the most versatile and abundant non-wood species for the replacement of wood, owing to its shorter growth cycles, high yield, and remarkable regeneration capability (Chaowana ; Li and He ). According to the FAO (), bamboo is widely grown in the world&#;s tropical and subtropical climatic zones, including in east, southeast, and south Asia (Lobovikov et al. ). Several provinces in China are located within the subtropical and tropical regions, so the country has plentiful bamboo resources and a wide variety of indigenous genera and species (Liu et al. ).
Bamboo is an important part of traditional Chinese culture and daily life. In historical China, bamboo was used to produce a wide range of products, including arrowheads, baskets, writing scrolls, pens, paper, boats, shoes, food (shoots), and construction materials (Yeromiyan ). Some bamboo species have demonstrated superior properties, such as natural hardness, low density, high compressive strength, and erosion-resistance (Guţu ; Dixon and Gibson ), compared to the commonly cultivated commercial wood species. Hence, bamboo is a high quality and sustainable material for construction. In the construction industry, bamboo has been extensively used for scaffolding, bridges, structures, and buildings (Mera and Xu ). Interestingly, bamboo shoots are also considered an important aspect in the utilization of bamboo. In China, edible bamboo shoots are a special dish, owing to their delicious taste and nutritional value (Liu et al. ).
Although bamboo offers a wealth of advantages, its utilization is still faced with some drawbacks due to the hollow and highly impermeable structure, which may limit its treatment with reagents for the improvement of mechanical properties (Okokpujie et al. ). In addition, the shortage of bamboo resources in the rest of the world has remained a challenge for the expansion of the bamboo industry (Desalegn and Tadesse ). In modern China, the utilization of bamboo has been greatly enhanced by technological advances. Bamboo resources are now widely used in the production of composite materials for interior design, furniture, and other applications (Huang et al. ; Sun et al. ). In a previous study, the application of bamboo weaving in modern furniture was investigated (Zheng and Zhu ).
The development of bamboo resources remains a key focus in modern China. As a result, the total bamboo forest area showed a steady increase of 3% annually over recent years (CAF ). The main purpose of this paper is to provide a review on the distribution of bamboo resources and their utilization in historical and modern-day China, based on the latest reports. The related data on bamboo resources and applications in historical and modern-day China was obtained from a selection of bamboo-related articles, government databases, and FAO reports. The pictures of bamboo forests, buildings, and structures were photographed by the authors using a Huawei P30 Pro camera (Shenzhen, China). Origin 8.5 (Northampton, MA, USA), ArcGIS (Redlands, CA, USA), and Microsoft PowerPoint (Redmond, WA, USA) software were used to draw the resource distribution diagrams, map, and scheme.
CURRENT STATUS OF BAMBOO RESOURCES IN CHINA
China has the largest and most diverse species of bamboo. The total number of bamboo species in China is currently estimated to be 861 species from 43 genera, of which 707 are original species, 52 are varieties, 98 are forma, and 4 are hybrids (Liu et al. ). Figure 1 shows images of some local bamboo forests in the Xuanwu district, Nanjing, Jiangsu province of China. In China, natural bamboo forests are found in 21 provinces. However, it was reported that the bamboo forests are mainly distributed across 18 provinces (Fig. 2). Based on the data shown in Fig. 3a, the total area of bamboo forests was approximately 3.2 million ha during the First National Forest Inventory ( to ). However, the total area of bamboo forests gradually increased over the more recent years, which was largely attributed to the government&#;s efforts in developing the bamboo industry and conserving indigenous species (CAF ). According to recent statistics from the Ninth National Forest Inventory ( to ), the total area of bamboo forests in China was 6.73 million ha, which made up approximately one-third of the world&#;s bamboo forests (CAF ). This showed that the total area of bamboo forests doubled since the First National Forest Inventory (CAF ). Moso bamboo accounted for over 60% of the total bamboo forest area (approximately 4.43 million ha), while other bamboo species accounted for the remaining portion.
Fig. 1. Bamboo forests in southeast China (photographed by the author in )
Fig. 2. Distribution of the bamboo forest area in the various provinces of China ( to ) (CAF )
Figure 3b shows the top 10 provinces with the largest distribution of forest resources in China. The Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Hunan provinces accounted for 3.92 million ha, which corresponded to 58.2% of the national bamboo forest area. Specifically, the Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Hunan provinces had bamboo forest areas of 1,139,600 ha, 1,056,500 ha, 900,600 ha, and 823,100 ha, respectively. Other provinces that contributed significantly to the national bamboo forest area were Sichuan (592,800 ha), Guangdong (446,200 ha), Anhui (388,000 ha), Guangxi (360,200 ha), Hubei (179,200 ha), and Guizhou (160,100 ha). As seen in Table 1, on average, the bamboo forest area in each province increased annually from to .
Fig. 3. The a) total bamboo forest area in China and the b) bamboo forest area in the top 10 provinces (CFA ).
Table 1. Distribution of Bamboo Resources in China by Province (unit: 10,000 ha)
The gradual increase in China&#;s bamboo forest area was reportedly attributed to improved forest management techniques and the increased demand for bamboo-based products (Mera and Xu ). As part of the government&#;s efforts to increase bamboo production, most bamboo plantations have adopted intensive management to maximize the income per unit of bamboo land. According to data obtained from a recent industrial report, the output of bamboo forests in China increased from 2.51 billion trees in to 3.77 billion trees in , with an average annual compound growth rate of 10.7% (Wu ).
The China Commercial Industry Research Institute predicts that with the continuous expansion of the country&#;s bamboo forest area, bamboo production will reach 4.10 billion trees in (Wei et al. ). China&#;s bamboo pulp papermaking is mainly distributed in the Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Guangxi, Guizhou, and Chongqing. The output of bamboo pulp in the four provinces accounts for more than 80% of the country&#;s total bamboo pulp production (Wu ). Recent data showed that the domestic output of bamboo pulp in was 20.91 million tons, and it was expected to reach 2.44 million tons in , owing to the advances in bamboo pulp papermaking technology (Wei et al. ).
As previously mentioned, China remains the world&#;s leading bamboo producer, with a wide range of indigenous species. Table 2 shows a list of the commonly cultivated indigenous genera in China. The country&#;s south and southwest regions (Fujian, Yunnan, Guangdong, Guangxi, and others) lie within the tropical monsoon climatic region, while the central and eastern provinces fall under the subtropical climatic region. Therefore, several provinces of China are considered part of the world&#;s bamboo zones. The bamboo genera can be classified into three categories: sympodial, monopodial, and amphipodial (Liu et al. ). Sympodial bamboos usually grown in clusters and produce buds from their nodes at short intervals in different directions, forming clumps. Monopodial bamboos (also called running bamboos) spread by developing horizontal rhizomes that extend beneath the ground surface, and they have the capability to naturally invade. One of the major advantages of monopodial genera is that they can be facilely propagated using simple cuttings from the rhizomes, which is challenging for sympodial bamboo. Finally, amphipodial bamboo refers to the type of rhizome that is composed of both sympodial and monopodial bamboos. Amphipodial bamboo is also referred to as mixpodial bamboo.
In China, a larger proportion of the cultivated or indigenous bamboos are classified as sympodial genera. Sympodial bamboos such as Bambusa, Chimonocalamus, Dendrocalamopsis, Dendrocalamus, Fargesia, Gigantochloa, Melocalamus, Melocanna, Schizostachyum, Thyrsostachys, and Thamnocalamus form the country&#;s largest natural bamboo forests in the southern and southeastern regions. Monopodial genera such as Acidosasa, Brachystachyum, Indosasa, and Phyllostachys are widely cultivated in the eastern parts of China. Phyllostachys is considered the most commercially grown bamboo genera in east China. Specifically, Phyllostachys pubescens form the largest cultivated bamboo forests along the Yangtze River, occupying approximately 59% of the national bamboo forest area (Liu et al. ). Monopodial and amphipodial genera such as Acidosasa, Bashania, Phyllostachys, Pseudosasa, and others are found in the northern regions. Cultivated or natural bamboo forests are beneficial for economic purposes, and they play a key role in biodiversity conservation, the prevention of soil erosion, and they serve as natural windbreakers. Hence, intensive bamboo forest management practices such as regular irrigation have been implemented in most parts of south, east, and southeast China.
Table 2. Indigenous Bamboo Genera Cultivated in China (Liu et al. ; Li and He )
BAMBOO UTILIZATION IN HISTORICAL CHINA
Bamboo has always been a key element of Chinese historical culture and daily lives. It is one of the major symbols of the development of Chinese culture and civilization. The first utilization of bamboo can be traced back to 4,000 to 5,000 years ago where it was used to carve arrowheads (Li and Kobayashi ). Bamboo utilization gained great attention from the Chinese people during the period of the Song Dynasty (A.D. 960). According to one of most popular historical Chinese writers and poet, Su Shi, bamboo played a major role in the daily lives of Chinese people even in ancient times (Lam and Qiu ).
Fig. 4. Bamboo applications in historical China
Some of the major uses of bamboo included edible bamboo shoots, bamboo timber for building construction, bamboo baskets for storing food stuffs, bamboo firewood for cooking, bamboo hats for protection from severe weather, bamboo scrolls for writing, bamboo pulp for making paper, and even bamboo skin for making clothes and shoes. It is noteworthy that different parts of the bamboo plant were used for various applications. One of the most interesting inventions in the utilization of bamboo in historical China was the development of a bamboo hydraulic system by Du Jiangyuan approximately 2,000 years ago. The hydraulic system, which employed a bamboo rope, was used to successfully dig a 160 m deep salt well in Sichuan province during the period of Han Dynasty (Fu ). Bamboo shoots were also a major part of the utilization of bamboo in historical times, owing to their delicious taste and high nutritional value. During the Tang Dynasty (618 to 906 A.D.), bamboo shoots were considered an exquisite dish served in special banquets. This shows that bamboo shoots have always been of great value to the Chinese people. Bamboo shoots usually contain at least 1.5% to 4.0% of proteins, with an abundance of different types of amino acids. They are also considered a healthy and sustainably sourced dish, so the global production of bamboo shoots continues to escalate annually. It is undoubtable that bamboo is one of the most valuable forest resources and it will always remain a key part of civilization and the daily lives of Chinese people.
BAMBOO UTILIZATION IN MODERN-DAY CHINA
In modern-day China, the main utilization of bamboo can be classified into two categories (socio-economic and environmental values) based on the relative benefits to the people or the environment. In Table 3, the various applications of bamboo-based products are listed. The economic value of bamboo can be derived from a wide range of products, including bamboo shoots, bamboo ceiling/interior, bamboo paper, bamboo furniture and handicraft, sculptures, and many others. In China, it is common to come across these bamboo-based products, especially in the old villages located in southeast China. Bamboo timber is widely used in building construction as scaffolding poles, walls, columns, ladders, and simple support beams. Figure 5 shows an example of a bamboo building located within the campus of Nanjing Forestry University in the Jiangsu province. The building illustrates different applications of bamboo material in building and structure construction.
Fig. 5. Bamboo use in buildings and structural construction: a) bamboo building, b) bamboo ceiling, c) bamboo exterior, and a d) bamboo structure (Location: Nanjing, Jiangsu Province).
Table 3. Economic and Ecological Utilization of Bamboo in China (Liu et al. ; Li and He )
Bamboo is also considered one of the most water-conservative plants due to its ability to store water for long periods, thereby allowing the continuous flow of ground water. Furthermore, bamboo is ideal for ecological conservation, as it controls soil erosion and serves as a carbon sink, releasing plentiful oxygen into the atmosphere (Tardio et al. ). Bamboo forests also provide a beautiful scenery, so they are ideal for boosting eco-tourism in certain areas.
As the various applications of bamboo are widely dependent on physical and structural properties, selected bamboo species are used in any specific application. For instance, Phyllostachys edulis (Moso bamboo) and Bambusa vulgaris are some of the common bamboo species used for timber production in China. Phyllostachys edulis is reportedly one of the major commercially cultivated bamboo species in subtropical climatic regions. Moso bamboo is mainly cultivated in plains and mountainous areas located in the southern parts of China, approximately 800 to 1,200 m above sea level. Many bamboo species can be used for pulp production because almost all bamboo species provide fibers that are ideal for pulp production. Bamboo can contain up to 50% of cellulose with a fiber length of approximately 3 mm, suggesting that it is an excellent raw material for pulp production. Dendrocalamus membranaceus and Schizostachyum funghomii are among the commonly grown species for bamboo pulp production. In China, the output of bamboo pulp reached 2.09 million tons in , following an increase of 9.42% from the previous year.
Dendrocalamus sinicus is another commonly cultivated bamboo species in China, characterized by its unique features such as the large and tall trunk (diameter of 35 cm and height of 30 m). Dendrocalamus sinicus is an ideal species for water conservation due to its ability to keep enough water within its trunk for a long time. Dendrocalamus sinicus is also capable of controlling soil erosion, as the roots can penetrate up to 10 m beneath the ground surface. In China, Dendrocalamus sinicus is only found in the Yunnan province, in the southern region. As previously mentioned, bamboo shoots are a special delicious dish in China, so they are widely cultivated in most of China&#;s bamboo growing regions. The commonly cultivated species for bamboo shoots are Phyllostachys edulis, Dendrocalamus giganteus, Dendrocalamus sinicus, Dendrocalamus brandisii, Dendrocalamus latiflorus, Dendrocalamus membranaceus, Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, and Phyllostachys praecox. However, it is worth noting that over 50 species of bamboo are cultivated for bamboo shoot production in China. Other bamboo species such as Chimonobambusa quadrangularis, Pseudosasa amabilis, Neosinocalamus affinis, Bambusa textilis, Bambusa chungii, Indosasa sinica, and Phyllostachys nigra are used to manufacture furniture and crafts. Specifically, Bambusa textilis and Neosinocalamus affinis are widely cultivated to produce material for weaving bamboo baskets and some kitchenware.
Structural Properties of Bamboo
Many researchers have explored the physical and mechanical properties of different bamboo species (Wang et al. ; Xu et al. ). Naturally, bamboo culm is characterized by lower weights compared to most wood species, owing to the hollow structure (Bahtiar et al. ). The high flexibility and tensile strength of matured bamboo culms make bamboo materials more attractive for structural and building construction (Bhonde et al. ). Table 4 shows the physical and mechanical properties of selected bamboo species. Note-worthily, some bamboo species such as Dendrocalamus giganteus, popularity known as &#;Giant bamboo&#;, can have extremely robust culms of up to 30 m in height and up to 30 cm thickness. Such large dimensions make it possible to produce rectangular boards from single pieces of Dendrocalamus giganteus. In addition, giant bamboo is often accompanied by superior mechanical properties compared to most commercial wood species such as Pinus massoniana. Bambusa vulgaris (also known as &#;common bamboo&#;) is also classified as large bamboo, with a tall culm of up to 20 m, thickness of 10 cm (Borisade et al. ), and highly impressive bending strength of .6 kg/cm2. Although small in size, Moso bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) is extremely hard; hence it can be used can be used in the production of lumber through the application of various adhesives.
Table 4. Comparison of the Physical Properties of Some Bamboo Species to Wood
Engineered Bamboo for Structural Applications
The production of bamboo-based products in China has significantly improved over the years, due to the development of new advanced equipment and techniques for bamboo processing. China&#;s bamboo processing technology is also used in countries such as Indonesia and India, promoting the growth of the global bamboo industry. Currently, bamboo can be processed into various products such as particleboards, plywood, laminated bamboo, and some bamboo composite materials (Sharma et al. ; Liu et al. ). However, due to the waxy skin, some bamboo culm can be highly impervious to certain types of chemical reagents, which can limit the potential applications of bamboo material. Hence, it is often advisable to remove the bamboo skin prior to treatment. Bamboo plywood is manufactured by gluing strips of bamboo together vertically or horizontally. The produced plywood is often used for wall panels in building construction. Notably, bamboo plywood possesses similar mechanical properties to conventional plywood produced by wood. Bamboo particleboards have gained enormous attention over the past decades, owing to their affordability and eco-friendliness compared to traditional wood particleboards. They are produced using waste bamboo particles and resin. In recent years, laminated bamboo lumber (LBL) has also attracted great demand from building contractors, owing to its superior mechanical strength and structural stability (Tang et al. ). Laminated bamboo lumber is characterized by its excellent modulus of rupture (98 to 138 MPa) and modulus of elasticity (9,000 to 21,000 MPa), suggesting that the material is super strong compared to typical laminated wood lumber.
Even though bamboo can be effectively used to produce a wide range of products, there is still a need to invest into the research and development of bamboo cultivation, management, and processing. Other countries located in the subtropical and tropical climatic regions should also consider methods to improve the production of bamboo to minimize the use of wood globally.
CONCLUSIONS
- The development of bamboo utilization techniques is of great importance to the world. As a sustainable material, bamboo can be applied in a wide range of applications including food, building and structure construction, fiber and pulp, furniture, tools, musical instruments, kitchenware, decorations, and interior design. In addition, bamboo forests play an important role in ecological conservation and the promotion of ecotourism.
- Bamboo resources have great potential in the southern and southeastern parts of China, owing to the favorable tropical monsoon climatic conditions. To further improve the production and utilization of bamboo resources in provinces such as Fujian, Sichuan, Zhejiang, and others, it is recommended that the government and other forestry organizations should work towards the establishment of more intensively managed bamboo plantations to produce bamboos with higher yields and better quality.
- The government of China can also implement a strategic development plan to strengthen the bamboo industry. Furthermore, strong cooperation between academic research institutes and bamboo industries should be implemented.
- Bamboo is undoubtedly the best alternative material for wood, so appropriate efforts should be applied to promote its utilization throughout the world.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful for the support of the Joint Research program of Sino-foreign Cooperation in Running Schools of Jiangsu Province, China.
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Article submitted: November 5, ; Peer review completed: November 30, ; Revised version received and accepted: December 6, ; Published: December 13, .
DOI: 10./biores.17.1.Dlamini
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